Air Water and Land Pollution Essay Example

Air Water and Land Pollution Paper Workbook, audio, more! Www. Lugubriousnesss. Com Air pollution is a general term that covers a broad range of contaminants in the atmosphere. Elution can occur from natural causes or from human activities. Discussions about the effects of air pollution have focused mainly on human health but attention is being directed to environmental quality and amenity as well. Air pollutants are found as gases or particles, and on a restricted scale they can be trapped inside buildings as indoor air pollutants. Urban air pollution has long been an important concern for civic administrators, but increasingly, air pollution has become an international problem. The most characteristic sources of air pollution have always been ambition processes. Here the most obvious pollutant is smoke. However, the widespread use of fossil fuels has made sulfur and nitrogen oxides pollutants of great concern. With increasing use of petroleum-based fuels, a range of organic compounds have become widespread in the atmosphere. In urban areas, air pollution has been a matter of concern since historical times. Indeed, there were complaints about smoke in ancient Rome. The use of coal throughout the centuries has caused cities to be very smoky places. Along with smoke, large concentrations of sulfur dioxide were produced. It was this suture of smoke and sulfur dioxide that typified the foggy streets of Victorian London, paced by such figures as Sherlock Holmes and Jack the Ripper, whose images remain linked with smoke and fog. Such situations are far less common in the cities Of North America and Europe today. We will write a custom essay sample on Air Water and Land Pollution specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Air Water and Land Pollution specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Air Water and Land Pollution specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer However, until recently, they have been evident in other cities, such as Ankara, Turkey, and Shanghai, China, that rely heavily on coal. Coal is still burned in large quantities to produce electricity or to refine metals, but these processes are frequently undertaken outside cities. Within urban areas, fuel use has shifted award liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons (petroleum and natural gas). These fuels typically have a lower concentration of sulfur, so the presence of sulfur dioxide has declined in many urban areas. However, the widespread use of liquid fuels in automobiles has meant increased production of carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, and volatile organic compounds. Primary pollutants such as sulfur dioxide or smoke are the direct emission products of the combustion process. Today, many of the key pollutants in the urban atmospheres are secondary pollutants, produced by processes initiated through photochemical reactions. The Los Angles, California-type, photochemical smog is now characteristic of urban atmospheres dominated by secondary pollutants. Although the automobile is the main source of air pollution in contemporary cities, there are other equally significant sources. Stationary sources are still important and the oil-burning furnaces that have replaced the older coal-burning ones are still responsible for a range of gaseous emissions and fly ash. Incineration is also an important source of complex combustion products, especially where this incineration burns a wide range of refuse. These emissions can include chlorinated hydrocarbons such as dioxin. When plastics, which often contain chlorine, are incinerated, hydrochloric acid is found in the waste gas stream. Metals, especially since they are volatile at high temperatures, can migrate to smaller, resalable particles. The accumulation of toxic metals, such as cadmium, on fly ash gives rise to concern over harmful effects from incinerator emissions. In specialized incinerators designed to destroy toxic compounds such as polycarbonate phenols (BPCS), many questions have been raised about the completeness of this destruction process. Even under optimum conditions when the urinate operation has been properly maintained, great care needs to be taken to control leaks and losses during transfer operations (fugitive emissions). The enormous range of compounds used in modern manufacturing processes has also meant that there is an ever-widening range of emissions from both the industrial processes and the combustion of their wastes. Although the amounts of these toxic compounds are often rather small, they add to the complex range of compounds found in the urban atmosphere. Again, it is not only the deliberate loss of effluents through discharge from pipes and chimneys that needs attention. Fugitive emissions of volatile substances that leak from valves and seals often warrant careful control. Air pollution control procedures are increasingly an important part of civic administration, although their goals are far from easy to achieve. It is also noticeable that although many urban concentrations of primary pollutants, for example, smoke and sulfur dioxide, are on the decline in developed countries, this is not always true in developing countries. Here the desire for rapid industrial growth has often lowered urban air quality. Secondary air pollutants are generally proving a more difficult problem to eliminate than primary pollutants like smoke. Smog covers the Los Angles basin. (Photo by Walter A. Lyons, AVIVA Productions. Reproduced by permission. ) AIR POLLUTION AND HEALTH PROBLEMS urban air pollutants have a wide range of effects, With health problems being the most enduring concern. In the classical polluted atmospheres filled with smoke and Suffer dioxide, a range of bronchial diseases was enhanced. While respiratory diseases are still the principal problem, the issues are somewhat more subtle in atmospheres where the air pollutants are not so obvious. In photo-chemical smog, eye irritation from a secondary pollutant, approximately titrate (PAN), is one of the most characteristic direct effects of the smog. High concentrations of carbon monoxide in cities where automobiles operate at high density mean that the human heart has to work harder to make up for the oxygen displaced from the bloods hemoglobin by carbon monoxide. This extra stress appears to reveal itself through increased incidence of complaints among people with heart problems. There is a widespread belief that contemporary air pollutants are involved in the increases in asthma, but the links between asthma and air pollution are probably rather complex and related to a whole range of factors. Lead, from automotive exhausts, is thought by many to be a factor in lowering the IIS of urban children. Air pollution also affects materials in the urban environment. Soiling has long been regarded as a problem, originally the result of the smoke from wood or coal fires, but now increasingly the result of fine black soot from diesel exhausts. The acid gases, particularly sulfur dioxide, increase the rate of destruction of building materials. This is most noticeable with calcareous stones, which are the predominant building material of many important historic structures. Metals also suffer from atmospheric acidity. In todays photochemical smog, natural rubbers crack and deteriorate rapidly. Health problems relating to indoor air pollution are extremely ancient. Anthracnose, or black lung disease, has been found in mummified lung tissue. Recent decades have witnessed a shift from the predominance of concern about outdoor air pollution into a widening interest in indoor air quality. The production of energy from combustion and the release of solvents is so large in the contemporary world that it causes air pollution problems of regional and global nature. Acid rain is now widely observed throughout the world. The sheer quantity of carbon dioxide emitted in combustion processes is increasing the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and enhancing the greenhouse effect. Courtesy of IS . S. Government publication. ) Solvents, such as carbon tetrachloride and the aerosol propellants chlorofluorocarbons (CIFS) are now detectable all over the globe and responsible for problems such as ozone layer depletion. At the other end of the scale, we need to remember that gases leak indoors from the polluted outdoor environment, but more often th e serious pollutants arise from processes that take place indoors. Here there has been particular concern with regards to the generation of nitrogen oxides by sources such as gas stoves. Similarly, formaldehyde from insulating foams causes illnesses and adds to concerns about our exposure to a substance that may induce cancer in the long run. In the last decade it has become clear that radon leaks from the ground can expose some members of the public to high levels of this radioactive gas within their own homes. Cancers may also result from the emanation of solvents from consumer products?glues, paints, and mineral fibers (asbestos). More generally these compounds and a range of biological trials?animal hair, skin, pollen spores, and dusts?can cause allergic reactions in some people. At one end of the spectrum these simply cause annoyance, but in extreme cases, such as found with the bacterium Legionary , a large number of deaths can occur. There are also important issues surrounding the effects of indoor air pollutants on materials. Many industries, especially the electronics industry, must take great care over the purity of indoor air where a speck of dust can destroy a microchip or low concentrations of air pollutants change the composition of surface films in component design. Museums must care for objects over long periods of time, so precautions must be taken to protect delicate dyes from the effects of photochemical smog, paper and books from sulfur dioxide, and metals from sulfide gases. AIR QUALITY Air quality is determined with respect to the total air pollution in a given area as it interacts with meteorological conditions such as humidity, temperature, and wind to produce an overall atmospheric condition. Poor air quality can manifest itself aesthetically (as a displeasing odor, for example), and can also result in harm to plants, animals, and people, and even damage to objects. As early as 1 881, cities such as Chicago, Illinois, and Cincinnati, Ohio, passed laws to control some types of pollution, but it was not until several air pollution catastrophes occurred in the twentieth century that governments began to give more attention to air-quality problems. For instance, in 1930, smog trapped in the Mouse River Valley in Belgium caused 60 deaths. Similarly, in 1948, smog was blamed for 20 deaths in Donors, Pennsylvania. Most dramatically, in 1 952, a sulfur-laden fog enshrouded London for five days and caused as many as 4,000 deaths over two weeks. Disasters such as these romped governments in a number of industrial countries to initiate programs to protect air quality. The year of the London tragedy, the United States passed the Air Pollution Control Act granting funds to assist the states in controlling airborne pollutants. In 1963, the Clean Air Act, which began to place authority for air quality into the hands of the federal government, was established. Today the Clean Air Act, with its 1 970 and 1 990 amendments, remains the principal air quality law in the United States. The act established a National Ambient Air Quality Standard under which federal, state, and local monitoring stations at thousands of locations, together with temporary stations set up by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and other federal agencies, directly measure pollutant concentrations in the air and compare those concentrations with national standards for six major pollutants: ozone, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, lead, particulates, and sulfur dioxide. When the air we breathe contains amounts of these pollutants in excess of EPA standards, it is deemed unhealthy, and regulatory action is taken to reduce the pollution levels. A December 1998 EPA report indicates hat while air quality continues to improve, approximately 1 07 million Americans in 1997 lived in areas that did not meet the ambient air quality standards for at least one of the six major pollutants noted above. In general, though, improvements in air quality have been significant: carbon monoxide concentrations have decreased 38%; lead concentrations have decreased by 67%; nitrogen dioxide concentrations are down by 14%; ozone (smog) concentrations have been reduced by 1 9%; particulate matter concentrations decreased 26%; and sulfur dioxide concentrations decreased 39%. At the name time that air pollution has been decreasing significantly (1970-97), gross domestic product increased 114%, U. S. Population increased 31 %, and vehicle miles traveled increased 127%. In addition, urban and industrial areas maintain an air pollution index. This scale, a composite of several pollutant levels recorded from a particular monitoring site or sites, yields an overall air quality value. Public warnings are given if the index exceeds certain values; in severe instances residents might be asked to stay indoors and factories might even be closed down. While such air quality emergencies seem increasingly are in the United States, developing countries, as well as Eastern European nations, continue to suffer poor air quality, especially in urban areas such as Bangkok, Thailand and Mexico City, Mexico. In Mexico City, for example, seven out of ten newborns have higher lead levels in their blood than the World Health Organization (WHO) considers acceptable. At present, many Third World countries place national economic development ahead of pollution control?and in many countries with rapid industrialization, high population growth, or increasing per capita income, the best efforts of overspent to maintain air quality are outstripped by rapid proliferation of automobiles, escalating factory emissions, and runaway arbitration. For all the progress the United States has made in reducing ambient air pollution, indoor air pollution may pose even greater risks than all of the pollutants we breathe outdoors. The Radon Gas and Indoor Air Quality Act of 1986 directed the EPA to research and implement a public information and technical assistance program on indoor air quality. From this program has come monitoring equipment to measure an individuals total exposure to Laotians both in indoor and outdoor air. Studies done using this equipment have shown indoor exposures to toxic air pollutants far exceed outdoor exposures for the simple reason that most people spend 90% of their time in office buildings, homes, and other enclosed spaces. Moreover, nationwide energy conservation efforts following the oil crisis of the sass led to building designs that trap pollutants indoors, thereby exacerbating the problem. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL The need to control air pollution was recognized in the earliest cities. In the Mediterranean at the time of Christ, laws were developed to place objectionable sources of odor and smoke downwind or outside city walls. The adoption of fossil fuels in thirteenth-century England focused particular concern on the effect of coal smoke on health, with a number of attempts at regulation with regard to fuel type, chimney heights, and time of use. Given the complexity of the air pollution problem it is not surprising that these early attempts at control met with only limited success. The nineteenth century was typified by a growing interest in urban public health. This developed against a background of continuing industrialization, which saw smoke abatement clauses incorporated into the growing body of sanitary legislation in both Europe and North America. However, a lack of both technology and political will doomed these early efforts to failure, except in the most blatantly destructive situations (for example, industrial settings such as those around alkali works in England). The rise Of environmental awareness in the current century has reminded us that air pollution ought not to be seen as a necessary product of industrialization. This has redirected responsibility for air pollution towards those who create it. The notion of making the polluter ay is seen as a central feature of air pollution control. The century has also seen the development of a range of broad air pollution control strategies, among them: 1. Air quality management strategies that set ambient air quality standards so that emissions from various sources can be monitored and controlled. . Emission standards strategy that sets limits for the amount of a pollutant that can be emitted from a given source. These may be set to meet air quality standards, but the strategy is optimally seen as one of adopting best available technology not entailing excessive costs (BATTENED). 3. Economic strategies that involve charging the party responsible for the pollution. If the level of charge is set corr ectly, some polluters will find it more economical to install air pollution control equipment than continue to pollute. Other methods utilize a system of traceable pollution rights. . Cost-benefit analysis, which attempts to balance economic benefits with environmental costs. This is an appealing strategy but difficult to implement because of its controversial and imprecise nature. In general, air pollution strategies have either been air quality or emission based. In the United Kingdom, emission tragedy is frequently used; for example, the Alkali and Works Act of 1 863 specifies permissible emissions of hydrochloric acid. By contrast, the United States has aimed to achieve air quality standards, as evidenced by the Clean Air Act. One criticism of using air quality strategy has been that while it improves air in poor areas it leads to degradation in areas with high air quality. Although the emission standards approach is relatively simple, it is criticized for failing to make explicit judgments about air quality and assumes that good practice will lead to an acceptable atmosphere. Until the mid- whiniest century, legislation was primarily directed towards industrial sources, but the passage of the United Kingdom Clean Air Act (1956), which followed the disastrous smog of December 1952, directed attention towards domestic sources of smoke. While this particular act may have reinforced the improvements already under way, rather than initiating improvements, it has served as a catalyst for much subsequent legislative thinking. Its mode of operation was to initiate a change in fuel, perhaps one of the oldest methods of control. The other well-tried aspects were the creation of smokeless zones ND an emphasis on tall chimneys to disperse the pollutants. As simplistic as such passive control measures seem, they remain at the heart of much contemporary thinking. Changes from coal and oil to the less-polluting gas or electricity have contributed to the reduction in smoke and sulfur dioxide concentrations in cities all around the world. Industrial zoning has often kept power and large manufacturing plants away from centers of human population, and superstars, chimneys of enormous height, are now quite common. Successive changes in automotive fuels?lead-free gasoline, low- Latinity gas, methanol, or even the interest in the electric automobile?are further indications of continued use of these methods of control. There are more active forms of air pollution control that seek to clean up the exhaust gases. The earliest of these were smoke and grit arresters that came into increasing use in large electrical stations during the twentieth century. Notable here were the cyclone collectors that removed large particles by driving the exhaust through a tight spiral that threw the grit outward where it could be collected. Finer particles could be removed by electrostatic reciprocation. These methods were an important part of the development of the modern pulverize fuel power station. However, they failed to address the problem of gaseous emissions. Here it has been necessary to look at burning fuel in ways that reduce the production of nitrogen oxides. Control of sulfur dioxide emissions from large industrial plants can be achieved by desertification of the flue gases. This can be quite successful by passing the gas through towers of solid absorbers or spraying solutions through the exhaust gas stream. However, these are not necessarily cheap options. The Atlantic converter is also an important element of active attempts to control air pollutants. Although these can considerably reduce emissions, they have to be offset against the increasing use Of the automobile. There is much talk of the development of zero pollution vehicles that do not emit any pollutants. Legislation and control methods are often associated with monitoring networks that assess the effectiveness of the strategies and inform the general public about air quality where they live. A balanced approach to the control of air pollution in the future may have to look far more broadly than simply at technological controls. It will become necessary to examine the way we structure our lives in order to find more effective solutions to air pollution. AIR POLLUTION INDEX The air pollution index is a value derived from an air quality scale that uses the measured or predicted concentrations of several criteria pollutants and other air-quality indicators, such as coefficient of haze (COHO) or visibility. The best-known index of air pollution is the pollutant standard index (SSI). The SSI has a scale that spans from O to 500. The index represents the highest value of several subsidence; there is a subsided for each pollutant, or in some cases, or a product of pollutant concentrations and a product of pollutant concentrations and COB. If a pollutant is not monitored, its subsided is not used in deriving the AS. The subsided of each pollutant or pollutant product is derived from a SSI monogram that matches concentrations with subsided values. The highest subsided value becomes the SSI. The SSI has five health- related categories: good (0-50); moderate (50-100); unhealthy (100-200); very unhealthy (200-300) hazardous (300-500). CLEAN AIR ACT (1 963, 1 970, 1990) The 1970 Clean Air Act and major amendments to the act in 1 977 and 1990 river as the backbone of efforts to control air pollution in the United States. This law established one Of the most complex regulatory programs in the country. Efforts to control air pollution in the United States date back to 1 881 , when Chicago and Cincinnati passed laws to control smoke and soot from factories in the cities. Other municipalities followed suit and the momentum continued to build. In 1952, Oregon became the first state to adopt a significant program to control air pollution, and three years later, the federal government became involved for the first time, when the Air Pollution Control Act was passed. This law granted funds to assist the states in their air pollution control activities. In 1 963, the first Clean Air Act was passed. This act provided permanent federal aid for research, support for the development of state pollution control agencies, and federal involvement in cross-boundary air pollution cases. An amendment to the act in 1965 directed the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (HEW) to establish federal emission standards for motor vehicles. (At that time, HEW administered air pollution laws. The EPA was not created until 1970. ) This represented a significant move by the federal government from a supportive to an active role in setting air-pollution policy. The 1967 Air Quality Act provided additional funding to the states, required the states to establish Air Quality Control Regions, and directed HEW to obtain and make available information on the health effects Of air pollutants and to identify pollution control techniques. All of these components of the law were designed to assist the states, but they further demonstrated increasing federal involvement in the issue. The Clean Air Act of 1970 marked a dramatic change in air pollution logic in the United States. Following the passage of this law, the federal government, not the states, would be the focal point for air pollution policy. This act established the framework that continues to be the foundation for air pollution control policy. The impetus for this change was the belief that the current state-based approach was not working. Public sentiment was growing so significantly that environmental issues demanded the attention of high- ranking officials. In fact, the leading policy entrepreneurs on the issue were president Richard Nixon and Senator Edmund Muskie of Maine. These men ND other leaders devised a plan with four key components. First, National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NANAS) were established for six major pollutants: carbon monoxide, le ad (in 1977), nitrogen dioxide, ground-level ozone (a key component of smog), particulate matter, and sulfur dioxide. For each of these pollutants, sometimes referred to as criteria pollutants, primary and secondary standards were set. The primary standards were designed to protect human health; the secondary standards were based on protecting crops, forests, and buildings if the primary standards were not capable of doing so. The act stipulated that these standards must apply to the entire country and be established by the EPA based on the best available scientific information. Related, the EPA was to establish standards for less common toxic air pollutants. Second, New Source Performance Standards (NSP) would be established by the EPA- These standards would determine how much air pollution would be allowed by new plants in the various industrial sectors. The standards are to be based on the best affordable technology available for the control of pollutants at sources such as power plants, steel factories, and chemical plants. Third, mobile source emission standards were established to control automobile emissions. These standards were specified in the statute (rather than left to the EPA), and schedules for meeting these standards were also written into the law. It was thought that such an approach was crucial in having success with the powerful auto industry. The pollutants regulated were carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides, with goals of reducing the first two pollutants by 90% by 1 975, and nitrogen oxides by 82% by 1975. The final component of the air quality protection framework involved the implementation of the above procedures. Each state would be encouraged to devise a state implementation plan (SIP), which would indicate how the state would achieve the national standards. This gave each state some flexibility while still maintaining national standards. These plans had to be approved by the ERA; if a state did not have an approved SIP, the EPA would administer the Clean Air Act in that state. However, since the federal government is in charge of establishing pollution standards for new mobile and stationary sources, even the States with an SIP have limited flexibility. The main focal point for the states was the control of existing stationary sources, and if necessary, mobile sources.

10 Pros and Cons Arguments For Abstinence

10 Pros and Cons Arguments For Abstinence Approaches to teenage pregnancy prevention split down the middle between two schools of thought: abstinence (waiting until marriage to have sex)sex education (including contraceptive information and HIV prevention) Both sides argue that their approach is effective, especially in light of the continuing decline in teen pregnancy rates and teen birth rates. Whether thats true or not, one fact is clear: the rates in recent years have hit record lows. So is this due to the push in abstinence-only education programs, or in broader and more comprehensive sex education programs that provide teens with information about contraception and HIV prevention? To consider the role of abstinence or sex education in teenage pregnancy prevention, it helps to consider both sides of the argument. Below are links to both sides of the issue 10 arguments for abstinence as the best form of pregnancy prevention for teens and 10 arguments against abstinence a total of 20 arguments representing each perspective on the abstinence/sex education debate. Ten Arguments For Abstinence Abstinence from sex is the only form of pregnancy prevention that is 100% effective. Every method of contraception has a risk of failure, however, small, but a teen who practices abstinence will never become pregnant.Teens who abstain from sexual activity also avoid the risk of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs).Teens who practice abstinence are much less likely to experience a physically or emotionally abusive relationship, drop out of high school, engage in substance abuse, or feel pressured into having sex all risk factors for teens who explore and become sexually active at an early age.A teen who practices abstinence and is in a romantic relationship is secure in the knowledge that her/his partner is not interested in them purely for sex a concern of many teens.Some studies indicate that couples enjoy greater relationship satisfaction when they delay having sex until they are seriously dating, engaged or married.Teens are at a stage in life in which theyre already emotionally vulnerable. Getting involved in a sexual relationship increases that vulnerability and the chances of being hurt or used by a partner. By abstaining from sex, its a lot easier to figure out if a relationship or a person is good for you. Studies have revealed a connection between low self-esteem and early sexual activity. A teen who deliberately chooses to wait to have sexual intercourse is less likely to look to a relationship for validation and may be more self-reliant.Some teens use sex as a way to achieve intimacy and closeness with someone, but this is an artificial way of doing so. Teens who practice abstinence build relationships with partners based on mutual likes and dislikes, common approaches to life, and shared interests and develop a more authentic relationship that can better stand the test of time.Abstinence may help students do better in school. According to the American Journal of Health studies, students in abstinence-only education programs demonstrate better GPAs and improved verbal and numerical aptitude skills.... stronger peer relations, positive youth development, and...[greater] aware[ness] of the consequences of risky behavior, such as teen pregnancy or sexually transmitted diseases.Abstinen ce costs nothing and there are no side effects as there are with oral contraceptives and many other forms of pregnancy prevention. Sources: Elias, Marilyn. Study pinpoints factors for early sex. USAToday.com. 12 November 2007.Lawrence, S.D. Abstinence Only Sex Ed Has Unexpected Benefit: Math Gains? Educationnews.com. 13 March 2012.McCarthy, Ellen. The Literature: Delaying sex seems to lead to a more satisfying relationship, study finds. Washingtonpost.com. 31 October 2010.Salzman, Brock Alan. An argument for abstinence and commitment: Implications For Sex Education and Counseling. Teen-aid.org. Retrieved 25 May 2012.

Executive vs. Non-executive Pay Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Executive vs. Non-executive Pay - Research Paper Example Average pay is made from chief executives to the low ranking managers. In the other hand, non-executive pay is a payment done due to management of department or regions where executive works in smaller companies (Martocchio, 2011). The companies which provide non executive pay do not comprise any governing body or board. Compensation is one of the disparity that grows in this line of executives as they are paid differently but performing the little task as compared to the employees. Management differences and organization plan in an organization determines employees payments. Chief executives in some companies tend to do a lot of work than others and earning more (Martocchio, 2011). Executives determine the success of failure of an organization because since they plan for every task undertaken including the payment. Good management is determined by the level of knowledge and experience with the

John F. Kennedy Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

John F. Kennedy - Research Paper Example He served in the House of Representatives as well as the United States Senate before being elected as president in 1960. The Kennedy Presidency was marked by several very important domestic and international events. The foreign policy of the Kennedy administration was dominated by Cold War threats from The Soviet Union and the escalation of the conflict in Vietnam. Domestic issues that occupied the administration centered on the poverty that still existed in much of the United States, especially in rural areas. Early in his presidency, Kennedy met with Nikita Khrushchev, the leader of The Soviet Union. Khrushchev was a strong willed individual that liked to bully other visiting heads of state. Kennedy was no exception. He left the summit with the Soviets frustrated and upset. Soon after this, the Soviets announced that they would establish official relations with East Berlin. This enclave of Soviet control had been in limbo since the end of World War II. Many Germans fled from East t o West Berlin. To stop this, the Soviets erected a wall through Berlin. The West portion of the city was cutoff and isolated. The Kennedy administration did not give in to the demands of the soviets that America abandon West Berlin. He stood his ground and his approval rating soared (Daum 2008, p. 19). The Cuban missile crisis was also a situation where President Kennedy took the nation to the brink of nuclear war and came out more popular than ever. The United Stated discovered that the Soviets were putting offensive missiles on the island of Cuba in the Caribbean. These missiles could be equipped with nuclear warheads that could reach as far north as Washington DC and possibly New York City. The missiles were arriving on Soviet ships, so the United States blockaded the island and started to search all Soviet ships headed towards Cuba. The Soviets were furious, but many nations in the Americas felt that President Kennedy was doing the right thing (Byrne 2006, p. 26). The standoff e nded by the Soviets stating they would no longer deploy missiles in Cuba and the United States promised never to invade Cuba. Secretly, the United States removed some outdated missile batteries from Turkey to further appease the Soviets. Domestic issues of the Kennedy administration focused on civil rights and the elimination of poverty. The historical record is mixed for President Kennedy’s domestic agenda. Civil rights were becoming important to many Americans. In the south, Kennedy needed to keep white, southern lawmakers on his side so some of the poverty reduction legislation he was championing could pass (Rosenberg et al. 2004, p.133). At the same time, he was getting pressure to forge closer ties with civil rights leader Martin Luther Kin Jr. The problem with getting too close to Martin Luther King Jr. was the fact that he was known to have communists as friends, associates and advisors. This was not acceptable politically. As a result, Kennedy is not viewed as being v ery successful in the area of Civil Rights. He forced educational institutions in the south to desegregate. But this action cost him the votes he needed to pass legislation to help the Appalachian region develop a modern economy. Another domestic initiative that occupied the Kennedy presidency was increasing America’s presence in space. The successful launch of Sputnik by the Soviets convinced many Americans that they were falling behind when it came to technology.

William Shakespeare and Lady Macbeth Essay Example for Free

William Shakespeare and Lady Macbeth Essay If Renaissance writers sought to accurately portray humanistic ideals and construct true to life portraits using words, then the women of Shakespeares plays embody the apex of this intention. Shakespearean dramas often attribute cunning intellect, calculated control and enigmatic beauty to his female protagonists. In modern reflection, they are revealed as forerunners of contemporary women who aptly proved their ability to rival men in wit and intellect. Rarely powerless or ambivalent, Shakespeares women often drove plots in which they served as the contrivers of the plays central focus. Undoubtedly, the frequently disputed author must have been someone who held education in the highest of esteem; he clearly believed the powers thereof could be used for iniquity or self-betterment. As will be shown, Shakespeare depicts the genius of which women are capable as well of the unspeakable evil in which some of literatures most recognizable females indulged. This dichotomy is perhaps best illustrated in two of Shakespeares most recognizable plays: Macbeth and The Taming of the Shrew. In the former, Lady Macbeth conceives a massacre of the existing royal family in order to elevate her husband to the throne of Scotland. The second play exemplifies the struggle of a spinster to derail the nuptials of both her sister and herself by warding off but eventually submitting to Petruchios courtship. Both women are delineated by the candor and cleverness of their speech and in due course must face the fate they least desired. However, rarely in any Renaissance play does there exist a woman as remarkably intelligent and beautiful as Portia in The Merchant of Venice. A female protagonist, she almost certainly embodies what the author believed the ideal woman should be. Lady Macbeths manipulative instigation of the central murders in MacBeth illustrates the naked ambition which a woman was capable of. As authoritarian and devious as any of Shakespeares characters, Lady Macbeth symbolizes the ability of ethical weakness corrupted by power to lead to corruption by immorality. A descendent of regal blood both historically and in the play, her education is presumed equal with any other woman of such status in the Renaissance. In order to understand the background of aristocratic ladies in the fifteenth century, it is critical to examine the socio-cultural transformation affecting women throughout Europe. As noted by Margaret L. King in Women of the Renaissance, the course of a changing balance of power, brought on by education being made more widely available to women, resulted in men beginning to respect their wives and look to them as a source of guidance, often in secular and domestic matters. It was with reference to this period that Marie de Guarnay wrote The Equity of Men and Women, in which she questioned the values of an uneducated woman and suggested that only women of culture could have a true sense of themselves. Another noted female writer, Christine de Pizan, wrote The City of Ladies, which was translated into English in 1521, around the time Shakespeare wrote his plays. The most significant of Pizans twenty works, the author detailed the significance of her own education and the instruction of other women. Though only limited education was sought out by commoners, Lady Macbeth would have been part of an elite class whom were fortunate enough to have the benefit of private instruction. Lady Macbeths eloquence hints at her implied learnedness. An articulate woman was a rarity among the working classes and was therefore a valued sign of class supremacy among the aristocracy. In Act I, Lady Macbeths monologue in scene five epitomizes both her ruthlessness and rhetoric: LADY MACBETH. The raven himself is hoarse That croaks the fatal entrance of Duncan Under my battlements. Come, you spirits That tend on mortal thoughts, unsex me here, And fill me from the crown to the toe top-full Of direst cruelty. Make thick my blood, Stop up thaccess and passage to remorse, That no compunctious visitings of nature Shake my fell purpose, nor keep peace between Th effect and it. Come to my womans breasts, And take my milk for gall, you murdring ministers, Wherever in your sightless substances You wait on natures mischief. (Shakespeare, 123) Lady Macbeth employs extended metaphors and caustic diction as she implores masculine courage and clearly defines her unequivocal ambition to overtake the throne by assassination. The sheer contemptuousness of this articulate soliloquy is evidence of an intellectual force who is in fact the dominant partner in her marriage to the future King Macbeth. In concordance, it may be inferred that Lady Macbeth exploits her regal status and intellectual prowess to bring harm unto others and ultimately facilitate her own demise. Her conscience is shown only as she descends into madness and ultimate suicide: LADY MACBETH. Wash your hands, put on your night-gown, look not so pale. I tell you yet again, Banquos buried; he cannot come out ons grave DOCTOR. Even so? LADY MACBETH. To bed, to bed; theres a knocking at the gate. Come, come, come, come, give me your hand; whats done cannot be undone. To bed, to bed, to bed. (Shakespeare, 219) Lady Macbeth amounts to a character utterly devoid of ethics. Though not entirely representative of Shakespeares opinion of educated women, his treatment of Lady Macbeth surely suggests that a womans intellectual ability, when miss-used, has adverse effects on the individual and those surrounding her. From the inception of The Taming of the Shrew, it is clear that Katherina indeed lives up to her reputation as Katherine the Curst (Shakespeare, 95). Baptistas eldest daughter behaves aggressively to the friendliest of acquaintances but she is also psychologically astute and capable of tremendous wit and candor. Though Katherinas feisty demeanor may be at first deceptive, by adding innuendos and complex metaphors to her discourse, Shakespeare alludes to a capable, clever woman beneath her pugnacious nature. Additionally, the author sets forth a counter-plot between Bianca and Lucentio who epitomize what a conventional young couple should be; his handsome looks and charismatic manner pair well with Biancas youthful beauty. Their relationship contrasts strongly with the tempestuous encounters between Petruchio and Katherina. However, Bianca is portrayed throughout as submissive and her role is never one of particular interest; it seems therefore that Shakespeare favors Katherina if only because her persona is the more fascinating to encounter. Bianca, though likely educated and reared similarly to Kate, lacks the gumption and resolve which makes her sister more demanding of her suitors and active in the play. Shakespeares favoritism is further evidenced in the plays title; Katherina is clearly the shrew and therefore the protagonist. In sum, the author has favored a willful woman over her submissive counterpart, validating a womans attempt to control her choice of partner rather than proper obedience. As for the authors inspiration, scholars have suggested that Katherina may have been modeled after his sister, Katherine de Vere of Windsor. If de Veres sister was the inspiration for his shrew, it is evident that he did not remember her fondly! When Edward de Vere was in his adolescence, Katherine attempted to obtain his inheritance and earldom by suing him. If Edward de Vere was in fact the author of the Shakespeare plays (Looney 1920, et alia), it seems his personal partialities may have influenced many of his female protagonists. Katherina is further characterized by the literary elements in her speech; her wit and rapid responses are among the sure signs that she is as clever as the men who surround her and a perfect adversary for Petruchio. Her infrequent victories over male counterparts are nearly always marked by two facets: Katherinas refusal to relinquish her stance and her keen ability to out-quarrel her opponent. In this passage, Katherina attempts to defy the wishes of Petruchio: KATHERINA So may you lose your arms. If you strike me, you are no gentlemen, why then no arms. PETRUCHIO A herald, Kate? O put me in thy books. KATHERINA What is your crest- a coxcomb? PETRUCHIO A combless cock, so Kate will be my hen. KATHERINA No cock of mine; you crow too like a craven. PETRUCHIO Nay, come Kate, come; you must not look so sour. KATHERINA It is my fashion when I see a crab. (Shakespeare, 97) Notably, Kates contemptuous remarks and quick-witted responses come as a great surprise to Petruchio, who seems to enjoy their combative exchange. Katherina dispels the notion that ladies must be demure and submissive if they wish to attract the company of a suitor. Perhaps the most telling moment in the play is Katherinas final monologue; it seems this speech has been the subject of more controversy than nearly all others in literature. It has been subjected to scholarly scrutiny, denounced by feminists and continued to awe readers for centuries because it is the most indicative moment of Shakespeares view of femininity. From the feminist movement of the twentieth century, there comes the revisionist theory that Kate has not been tamed at all and her character is a mockery of mens treatment of women. Evidence to support this includes Christopher Slys comments about the play, in which he states that Petruchios actions have taught him how to treat a woman. Since we are aware of Christopher Slys foolishness, it is unlikely that the author aimed for readers to identify with this view. It seems possible that Shakespeare intended to reveal the lingering misogyny of an era in which willful, intelligent women were often dismissed as stepping outside their natural roles. Though it seems avant-garde in the context of the period, this theory suggests that womens submissiveness has been mocked and the play is ultimately successfully feminist. If the final monologue is intended to deceive Petruchio and is a calculated attempt to win back his favor, then Katherinas character is truly revolutionary because she has beguiled the two men who know her best- Petruchio and Baptista- into believing that she yields to their desires. But this interpretation of Petruchio and Katherina demonstrates to why it is believed The Earl of Oxford respected Elizabeth Trentham: she was an intellectually gifted woman who was capable of actively participating in affairs traditionally allocated to men. The alternate theory and more accepted of the two, is that Kate is a broken woman and male supremacy has been achieved. Aside from Kates final monologue, there is evidence throughout the play in favor of a misogynistic interpretation. In particular, Act IV, in which Petruchio and Kate return home from their wedding, is atrocious yet exemplary of brutal tactics used to keep women from taking charge of the household. Throughout the scene, Petruchio makes subtle suggestions that Kate has been transformed by their wedding from her fathers property to his. Furthermore, as Petruchio becomes enraged by the servants, he directly prevents Katherine from relieving her fundamental need of food and sleep. In response to her taming, Kate attributes the following accolades to her husband at the end of Act V: Thy husband is thy lord, thy life, thy keeper, Thy head, thy sovereign; one that cares for thee And for thy maintenance; commits his body To painful labor both by sea and land, To watch the night in storms, the day in cold, Whilst thou list warm at home, secure and safe; And craves no other tribute at thy hands  But love, fair looks, and true obedience Too little payment for so great a debt. (Shakespeare, 160) Interpreted by the second view, this speech may be considered an elegy for the vivacious, feisty Katherina that has been replaced by the subservient Kate. She has eschewed every facet of her personality which had been valued so greatly to this point in the play. In a sense, Katherina is representative of the cycle which many aristocratic women faced in the Renaissance: they were educated to be proficient members of society only to be silenced at the hand of a husband they often did not desire. If the speech is not a tongue-in-cheek betrayal, then Katherina has truly been broken by Petruchios incessant cruelty and she represents a victim of the repressive treatment many fifteenth century women endured. Perhaps no examination of Shakespeares treatment of educated women could be complete without deciphering Portias enigmatic mix of beauty and intellect. She is seemingly a series of contradictions: a free sprit abiding by strict rules, feminine but strong and happy to be rid of many of her suitors yet saddened by her inability to control her marital prospects. Portia is a woman of remarkable wealth and patrician social status yet her values are those of every woman. She is clearly the plays protagonist; her humility and capacity to make the situations work in her favor counter Shylocks malignant conduct. The epitome of Portias contribution to the plot can be found in Shakespeares oft discussed court scene. Disguised as Balthasar, she effectively imitates as a man who has been educated through law school. This is the strongest suggestion that Shakespeare intended Portia to be not only learned but also wise; her trial scenes reveal a keen sense of  manipulation which allows Portia to address both parties without apparent bias, though to the reader she hardly seems impartial. In her famous speech, Portia equates the virtue of mercy with the divine and beseeches Shylocks compassion for Antonio: PORTIA. The quality of mercy is not strained; It droppeth as the gentle rain falls from heaven Upon the place beneath. It is twice blest; It blesseth him that gave and him that takes. Tis mightiest in the mightiest; it becomes The throned monarch better than his crown. His scepter shows the force of temporal power,  Wherein doth sit the dread and fear of kings; But mercy is above this sceptered sway. (Merchant, 78) Portia is indeed a woman of great articulacy who adapts fluidly to her role as a mediating lawyer. She has used her grace and candor to make a stellar case for Antonios life; this could not have been accomplished without her previous schooling. Balthasar turns the case around entirely: by trials end, Shylock is begging for mercy from Antonio. Portia has indeed floored the courtroom with her arguments and saved the life of her husbands comrade. The protagonist has effectively used her wits and ingenuity to deliver justice into the hands of an innocent man and antagonized Shylocks gluttonous ploy. In the context of womens education, Portia exemplifies that with knowledge, women may be as effective as men. Because she is posing in a traditionally male position, it is significant that Portia prevails in the case and delegates a fair result even for the disagreeable Shylock. Though she is clearly capable of being as effective as any male lawyer, Portia is forbidden to do so unless she poses as a man. Shakespeare is thus providing a strong critique of the limitations of gender roles and satirizing male superiority, a concept quite radical for his time. In a historical context, we are aware of some parallels between these characteristics and the second wife of the Edward de Vere, 17th Earl of Oxfords second wife, Elizabeth Trentham. Though little is known about her background or life with de Vere, from his will and letters certain principles are clear. Elizabeth Trentham did participate in managing of the Earls finances and her letters suggest that she was eloquent and probably of distinguished academic background for a woman of her time. Since it has been said that de Veres married her for love rather than social gain, we may infer that his true preference leaned toward women of capable intellect and practical abilities. Portia certainly exhibits these traits; her ability to speak in court and prevailing love for Bessanio suggest that she is a woman of resolve and strength. The court scenes in The Merchant of Venice are so potent that they have been the subject of noteworthy scholarly debate. In particular, Portias capable trial speeches bear similarities in tone to the pleas Mary Queen of Scots made for her own life in 1587. Significantly, Edward de Vere was a judge at this trial and though clearly his sympathies lay with Elizabeth I, de Vere may have been struck by Marys unaided defense which was palpably an attempt to appeal to the sympathies of her judges. She is said to have broken down in court and unabashedly pleaded with the judges for her life. Though her life was not spared, it has been said that she was effective in arousing pity in the court: Mary defended herself with consummate ability before a tribunal almost entirely prejudiced against her. She was deprived of legal aid, without her papers and in ill health†¦she reached a point of touching eloquence which might have moved the hearts, though it did not convince the intellects, of her august judges. (Looney, 303) Perhaps, the very notion of a woman mounting her own defense at a trial was an idea which struck the Earl of Oxford as worthy of further expansion and like Mary Queen of Scots; he constructed the character of Portia to underscore the significance of mercy as a divine attribute bringing both the giver and receiver closer to God. The women of Shakespeares plays were harbingers of the present; they represented triumph of ability and intellect over rigid gender roles. In Shakespeares time, intelligent women were often viewed as a threat to male superiority; however, it seems their attributes often made them capable of dominating their relationships with men and their cogency proved equal. This idea is further established by the notion that Portia and Katherina may have been based on women from the authors life. Though studying the works of Shakespeare, it becomes clear that women.

Edgar Allan Poe Essay -- essays research papers

Edgar Allan Poe Edgar Allan Poe began his career as a poet, and collected or corrected poems throughout his career. A quality of enjoyable sounds can be found in poems that readers also consider serious. However, these elements can also exist with themes that are more typical of the Romantic Movement, such as dreams and nightmares Poe handled this through images designed to show undecided states of awareness represented as lakes, seas, waves, and vapors. Nearly all Poe's criticism on poetry was written for the magazines for which he worked. Although the pieces were published occasionally, they reflect a remarkably logical, self-conscious view of poetry and of the creative process. Poe wrote "The Philosophy of Composition" to explain how he composed "The Raven." The essay went up against the romantic guess that the poet works in an emotion of pure inspiration. Instead, Poe wrote a carefully planned description of poetic creation. The essay analyzes the central role of the conscious choice of an emotional atmosphere that is more important than events, characters, and the lyrics. Poe also offered his famous statement â€Å"the death of a beautiful woman is the most poetical topic in the world.† In "The Poetic Principle" (1850), Poe claimed that poetry works to achieve "an elevating excitement of the soul," an emotional state that could not be long sustained. He further declared that a " ;long poem" is a contradiction in terms. Poe beli...

Impact of Internet & Online Community Networking Application Essay

Web 2. 0 internet Technology allows users to interact and cooperate with each other in a social media dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual community. There are various Community Networking Application platforms provided by the social media networks such as Facebook, LinkedIn, YouTube and Twitter to the marketing of products and services for the hospitality industry. Social network offers media technologies that can enable online functionality and monitoring perspectives wherein the data gathered can be used to improve their services for customer satisfaction. The hospitality industry can market themselves in social media and networking thus it can be use social media to engage customers and clients in dialogue and recognize their needs & wants. Through these networking sites, hospitality industry Web 2. 0 internet Technology allows users to interact and cooperate with each other in a social media dialogue as creators of user-generated content in a virtual community. There are various Community Networking Application platforms provided by the social media networks such as Facebook, LinkedIn, YouTube and Twitter to the marketing of products and services for the hospitality industry. Social network offers media technologies that can enable online functionality and monitoring perspectives wherein the data gathered can be used to improve their services for customer satisfaction. The hospitality industry can market themselves in social media and networking thus it can be use social media to engage customers and clients in dialogue and recognize their needs & wants. Through these networking sites, hospitality industry could interact with new & loyal guests before, during, and after of the guest staying experience. Social media is relatively new and the advantages are abundance such as it is affordable (no cost), it is viral and has the potential to spread brand awareness rapidly and far and it is said to be able to develop link baits, attention and massive amounts of webpage traffic flow. The purpose of this study is to evaluate Impact of Internet & Online Community  Networking Application (Web 2. 0 internet Technology) based on Budget Hotel in Klang Valley Introduction Hospitality industry play significant role in the world in terms of the numbers of employees and its effect on the community and economical development of a region or country. Hospitality means providing service to others, as well as demonstrating consistent excellence and quality. It should also mean profitably providing value at any price level, while demonstrating your own unique points of distinction. Most of all, hospitality should be a â€Å"place†, where people can still be exceptional individuals and they can extend their own personality and style (Hogan, 2008). The use of internet & networking application for basic functions for instance conferences, business meetings in distant places, training, designed routes and airlines, reservations and tickets purchased through computer systems, tourist shops, restaurants is becoming typical in hospitality industry. The hotels depend progressively on the resources of new information technology to follow and update the tools which allow an efficient development of activities in each section of the company, leading to better results for its management (Mendes-Filho & Ramos, 2003a). To Phillips and Moutinho (1998), information technology (IT) is one of the critical factors of success in the hotel industry. The debate over â€Å"high-tech† or â€Å"high-touch† is largely a thing of the past in the hospitality industry as emerging technologies drive unprecedented change in the way hotels operate and serve customers. It is clear that investments in technologies can generate greatly improved operating efficiencies, higher hotel revenues and enhanced guest services. The pace of change, however, has been so extreme as to leave many hotel organizations uncertain about what types of technology to adopt and the best ways to create a seamless integration of systems company-wide. In addition, investments made by many hotel owners and operators during the last five years have lagged as a result of the serious downturn weathered by the industry. Many hotel organizations are using technologies so outdated as to place their companies at a competitive disadvantage in the marketplace. (dchosenone, Jun 2009) The arrival of the Internet has increased the opportunities to boost the accommodation industry. Recently, hoteliers are fully aware of the benefits that the Internet can calaborate to their business. Well-informed of the far reaching importance of the web, they are motivated to create more awareness of their industry, on top of getting more bookings online. This had driven website development for hotels and resorts, the online reservation booking system, the increased number of reviews and redesigning of accommodation websites, as well as other tourism related online enterprises. As a matter of fact, there is a steady, daily growth of the web strategies for hotel and hospitality. The IT trends in the accommodation industry improve every day. Online marketing renewed the hospitality industry. Social bookmarking, mobile marketing (Runritz application), Web 2. online communities and all others have all added up to the change in the impact of the hospitality industry. The traditional booking system of hotels and resorts has been changed by the Internet. Thus potential guests can easily compare several hotel rooms & facilities and its rates offered by various hoteliers. Then there is the advancement of computer graphics and web photos that hoteliers had utilize to display their hotels’ pictures. In this way potential guests can take a virtual tour to feel the interiors and exteriors of their hotels and resorts. It has also become simple for clients to acquire info on hotels’ Rooms and Rates, amenities, facilities and promos. The emergence of Web 2. 0, allows one with unlimited amount of things the individual can do on the internet these days. The individual is not just restricted to emails or passively absorbing the static information that is available on the web pages when browsing. It used to be one-way but now the web is the platform where people can share information, hold a decent dialogue, build both social and business connections. Social media has recently been adopted by a small group of organizations’ integrated marketing plans. There by infusing a mix of advertisement, public relations, their sales promotion to produce a customer focused message. With the evolution of platforms such as LinkedIn, Facebook, Twitter and YouTube, we have the golden opportunity for exceptional access to the guest (Lanz, Fischhof, & Lee, 2010). Since social media is so available to anyone with an internet connection, it should be a platform that can be recommended to the ospitality industry to increase their brand awareness and facilitate direct feedback from their customers. A business that understands the advantage of social media is well aware that social media is essential in developing new business in the current competitive and online driven marketplace. Marketing is an important aspect for any company involved in business. As such, it is a competitive world out there, and social media marketing is the ‘new kid in town’ and it can reach out to the people accessing these social media platform regularly. Communication is essential for any corporation and business, therefore either they change the way information is conveyed or be prepared to lose some of the audience. It is imperative for marketing managers to continuously find a solution to appeal, keep new and current consumers (Schneider, 2009). Social network is the ideal platform for communication that applies perfectly with marketing in the virtual world. Social networks are groups of individuals who 3 prefer to communicate with one another through a preferred site based on the profile created for themselves (Laudon and Traver, 2007).